Glossary - Airborne

A

Absorbent A solid, liquid or gaseous material that takes up another solid, liquid or gas. E.g. Sodium carbonate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium hydroxide, ammonia or limestone used in Flue Gas Desulfurization.

Acid rain Rainwater that has an acidity content greater than the postulated natural pH of about 5.6. It is formed when sulfur dioxides and nitrogen oxides, as gases or fine particles in the atmosphere, combine with water vapor and precipitate as sulfuric acid or nitric acid in rain, snow, or fog. The dry forms are acidic gases or particulates. See nitrogen oxides.

Aerosol Particulate matter, solid or liquid, larger than a molecule but small enough to remain suspended in the atmosphere. Natural sources include salt particles from sea spray, dust and clay particles as a result of weathering of rocks, both of which are carried upward by the wind. Aerosols can also originate as a result of human activities and are often considered pollutants. Aerosols are important in the atmosphere as nuclei for the condensation of water droplets and ice crystals, as participants in various chemical cycles, and as absorbers and scatters of solar radiation, thereby influencing the radiation budget of the Earth's climate system. See climate, particulate matter.

Air pollutant See air pollution.

Air pollution One or more chemicals or substances in high enough concentrations in the air to harm humans, other animals, vegetation, or materials. Such chemicals or physical conditions (such as excess heat or noise) are called air pollutants.

Airborne particulates Total suspended particulate matter found in the atmosphere as solid particles or liquid droplets. Chemical composition of particulates varies widely, depending on location and time of year. Airborne particulates include; windblown dust, emissions from industrial processes, smoke from the burning of wood and coal, and motor vehicle or non-road engine exhausts.

Alliance of Small Island States (AOSIS) The group of Pacific and Caribbean nations who call for relatively fast action by developed nations to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The AOSIS countries are concerned by the effects of rising sea levels and increased storm activity predicted to accompany global warming. Its plan is to hold Annex I Parties to a 20 percent reduction in carbon dioxide emissions by the year 2005. See Annex I Parties.

Allotment Trading Units In the Illinois ERMs program, an ATU is the tradeable unit issued by the Illinois Environmental Protection Agency. An ATU represents 200 pounds of volatile organic material emissions and is a limited authorization to emit 200 pounds of volatile organic material emissions during the seasonal allotment period under the ERMS program.

Alternative energy Energy derived from nontraditional sources (e.g., compressed natural gas, solar, hydroelectric, wind).

Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4 A white rhombic solid; relative density 1.77; decomposes at 235 C. It is very soluble in water and insoluble in ethanol. It occurs naturally as the mineral mascagnite. Ammonium sulfate was formerly manufactured from the "ammoniacal liquors" produced during coal-gas manufacture but is now produced by the direct reaction between ammonia gas and sulfuric acid. It is decomoposed by heating to release ammonia (and ammonium hydrogensulfate) and eventually water, sulfur dioxide and ammonia. Vast quantities of ammonium sulfate are used as fertilizers.

Annex I Parties Industrialized countries that, as parties to the Framework Convention on Climate Change, have pledged to reduce their greenhouse gas emissions by the year 2000 to 1990 levels. Annex I Parties consist of countries belonging to the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and countries designated as Economies-in-Transition.

Antarctic "Ozone Hole" Refers to the seasonal depletion of stratospheric ozone in a large area over Antarctica.

Anthracite A hard, black, lustrous coal containing a high percentage of fixed carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. Often referred to as hard coal. See coal.

Anthropogenic Human made. In the context of greenhouse gases, emissions that are produced as the result of human activities.

Arable land Land that can be cultivated to grow crops.

Ash The mineral content of a product remaining after complete combusion.

Atmosphere The mixture of gases surrounding the Earth. The Earth's atmosphere consists of about 79.1% nitrogen (by volume), 20.9% oxygen, 0.036% carbon dioxide and trace amounts of other gases. The atmosphere can be divided into a number of layers according to its mixing or chemical characteristics, generally determined by its thermal properties (temperature). The layer nearest the Earth is the troposphere, which reaches up to an altitude of about 8 km (about 5 miles) in the polar regions and up to 17 km (nearly 11 miles) above the equator. The stratosphere, which reaches to an altitude of about 50 km (31 miles) lies atop the troposphere. The mesosphere which extends up to 80-90 km is atop the stratosphere, and finally, the thermosphere, or ionosphere, gradually diminishes and forms a fuzzy border with outer space. There is relatively little mixing of gases between layers.

Atmospheric lifetime See lifetime.

Atomic weight The average weight (or mass) of all the isotopes of an element, as determined from the proportions in which they are present in a given element, compared with the mass of the 12 isotope of carbon (taken as precisely 12.000), that is the official international standard; measured in daltons.

Atoms Minute particles that are the basic building blocks of all chemical elements and thus all matter.

B

Basic solution Water solution with more hydroxide ions (OH-) than hydrogen ions (H+); water solutions with pH greater than 7.

Berlin Mandate A ruling negotiated at the first Conference of the Parties (COP 1), which took place in March, 1995, concluding that the present commitments under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change are not adequate. Under the Framework Convention, developed countries pledged to take measures aimed at returning their greenhouse gas emissions to 1990 levels by the year 2000. The Berlin Mandate establishes a process that would enable the Parties to take appropriate action for the period beyond 2000, including a strengthening of developed country commitments, through the adoption of a protocol or other legal instruments. See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Conference of the Parties.

Biodegradable Material that can be broken down into simpler substances (elements and compounds) by bacteria or other decomposers. Paper and most organic wastes such as animal manure are biodegradable.

Bitumen Gooey, black, high-sulfur, heavy oil extracted from tar sand and then upgraded to synthetic fuel oil.

Bituminous coal A dense, black, soft coal, often with well-defined bands of bright and dull material. The most common coal, with moisture content usually less than 20 percent. Used for generating electricity, making coke, and space heating. See coal.

British thermal unit (Btu) The quantity of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound of water one degree of Fahrenheit at or near 39.2 degrees Fahrenheit.

C

calcium chloride (CaCl2) A white deliquescent compound which is soluble in water; relative density 2.15; melting point 782 C; boiling point 1600 C. There are a number of hydrated forms, including the monohydrate, CaCl2.H2O, the dihydrate, CaCl2.2H2O (relative density 0.84), and the hexahydrate, CaCl2.6H2O (trigonal; r.d. 1.71; the hexahydrate loses 4H2O at 30 C and the remaining 2H2O at 200 C. ) Large quantities of it are formed as a byproduct of the Solvay process and it can be prepared by dissolving calcium carbonate or calcium oxide in hydrochloric acid. Crystals of the anhydrous salt can only be obtained if the hydrated salt is heated in a stream of hydrogen chloride. Solid calcium chloride is used in mines and on roads to reduce dust problems, whilst the molten salt is the electrolyte in the extraction of calcium. An aqueous solution of calcium chloride is used in refrigeration plants.

calcium oxide (lime) A white solid compound, CaO, formed by heating calcium in oxygen or by the thermal decomposition of calcium carbonate; cubic; relative density 3.35; melting point 2580 C; boiling point 2850 C. On a large scale, calcium carbonate in the form of limestone is heated in a tall tower (lime kiln) to a temperature above 550 C. Although the reaction is reversible, the carbon dioxide is carried away by the upward current through the kiln and all the limestone decomposes. Calcium oxide is used to make calcium hydroxide, as a cheap alkali for treating acid soil, and in extractive metallurgy to produce a slag with the impurities (especially sand) present in metal ores.

capital cost Also known as capital expenditure [CAPEX]. The expenditure by an organization of an appreciable sum for the purchase or improvement of a fixed asset. The amount expended would warrant the item being depreciated over an estimated useful life of a reasonably extended period.

carbon cycle All carbon reservoirs and exchanges of carbon from reservoir to reservoir by various chemical, physical, geological, and biological processes. Usually thought of as a series of the four main reservoirs of carbon interconnected by pathways of exchange. The four reservoirs, regions of the Earth in which carbon behaves in a systematic manner, are the atmosphere, terrestrial biosphere (usually includes freshwater systems), oceans, and sediments (includes fossil fuels). Each of these global reservoirs may be subdivided into smaller pools, ranging in size from individual communities or ecosystems to the total of all living organisms (biota).

carbon dioxide (CO2) A colorless, odorless, non-poisonous gas that is a normal part of the ambient air. Carbon dioxide is a product of fossil fuel combustion. Although carbon dioxide does not directly impair human health, it is a greenhouse gas that traps terrestrial (i.e., infrared) radiation and contributes to the potential for global warming. See global warming.

carbon dioxide equivalent (CDE) A metric measure used to compare the emissions from various greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Carbon dioxide equivalents are commonly expressed as "million metric tons of carbon dioxide equivalents (MMTCDE)." The carbon dioxide equivalent for a gas is derived by multiplying the tons of the gas by the associated GWP.
MMTCDE = (million metric tons of a gas) (GWP of the gas)
See greenhouse gas, global warming potential, carbon equivalent.

carbon equivalent (CE) A metric measure used to compare the emissions of the different greenhouse gases based upon their global warming potential (GWP). Greenhouse gas emissions in the U.S. are most commonly expressed as "million metric tons of carbon equivalents" (MMTCE). Global warming potentials are used to convert greenhouse gases to carbon dioxide equivalents – they can be converted to carbon equivalents by multiplying by 12/44 (the ratio of the molecular weight of carbon to carbon dioxide). The formula for carbon equivalents is:
MMTCE = (million metric tons of a gas) (GWP of the gas) (12/44)
See global warming potential, metric ton, carbon dioxide equivalent.

carbon flux The rate of exchange of carbon between pools (i.e., reservoirs). See carbon pool.

carbon intensity The relative amount of carbon emitted per unit of energy or fuels consumed. See energy.

carbon monoxide A pollutant governed by New Source Review Programs.

carbon pool The reservoir containing carbon as a principal element in the geochemical cycle.

carbon sequestration The uptake and storage of carbon. Trees and plants, for example, absorb carbon dioxide, release the oxygen and store the carbon. Fossil fuels were at one time biomass and continue to store the carbon until burned. See carbon sinks, fossil fuel.

carbon sequestration In the greenhouse gas program, a concept that refers to capturing carbon and keeping it from entering the atmosphere for some period of time. Carbon is sequestered in carbon sinks such as forests, soils, or oceans.

carbon sinks Carbon reservoirs and conditions that take-in and store more carbon (i.e., carbon sequestration) than they release. Carbon sinks can serve to partially offset greenhouse gas emissions. Forests and oceans are large carbon sinks. See carbon sequestration.

certified emission reductions In the greenhouse gas program, CERs are verified and authenticated reductions of greenhouse gas from the abatement or sequestration projects which are certified by the Clean Development Mechanism.

chemical reaction Interaction between chemicals in which there is a change in the chemical composition of the elements or compounds involved.

chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Organic compounds made up of atoms of carbon, chlorine, and fluorine. An example is CFC-12 (CCl2F2), used as a refrigerant in refrigerators and air conditioners and as a foam blowing agent. Gaseous CFCs can deplete the ozone layer when they slowly rise into the stratosphere, are broken down by strong ultraviolet radiation, release chlorine atoms, and then react with ozone molecules.

climate The average weather, usually taken over a 30 year time period, for a particular region and time period. Climate is not the same as weather, but rather, it is the average pattern of weather for a particular region. Weather describes the short-term state of the atmosphere. Climatic elements include precipitation, temperature, humidity, sunshine, wind velocity, phenomena such as fog, frost, and hail-storms, and other measures of the weather. See weather.

climate change The term "climate change" is sometimes used to refer to all forms of climatic inconsistency, but because the Earth's climate is never static, the term is more properly used to imply a significant change from one climatic condition to another. In some cases, climate change has been used synonymously with the term, global warming; scientists however, tend to use the term in the wider sense to also include natural changes in climate. See climate, global warming, greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse effect.

Clean Development Mechanism In the greenhouse gas program, the CDM is a mechanism established by Article 12.2 of the Kyoto Protocol for project-based emission reduction activities in developing countries.

coal A black or brownish black solid, combustible substance formed by the partial decomposition of vegetable matter without access to air. The rank of coal, which includes anthracite, bituminous coal, subbituminous coal, and lignite, is based on fixed carbon, volatile matter, and heating value. Coal rank indicates the progressive alteration, or coalification, from lignite to anthracite. See anthracite, bituminous coal, lignite.

coal coke A hard, porous product made from baking bituminous coal in ovens at temperatures as high as 2,000 degrees Fahrenheit. It is used both as a fuel and as a reducing agent in smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.

coal gasification Conversion of solid coal to synthetic natural gas (SNG) or a gaseous mixture that can be burned as a fuel.

coal liquefaction Conversion of solid coal to a liquid fuel such as synthetic crude oil or methanol.

coalbed methane Methane that is produced from coalbeds in the same manner as natural gas produced from other strata. Methane is the principal component of natural gas.

coal reserves Known coal reserves are spread over 100 countries, estimated to last 200 years [oil & gas reserves are estimated to last approximately 65 years]

Coal provides 26% of global primary energy and generates 37% of world’s electricity.

co-control benefit The additional benefit derived from a pollution control process that is designed to control one type of pollution, while reducing the emissions of other pollutants as well. For example, AIRborne Technologies' Flue Gas Purification process reduces sulfur dioxide emissions and improves the combustion efficiency of coal. But when coal combustion is improved, so too are the emissions of NOx. The benefits associated with reductions in emissions of NOx are the co-control benefits of reductions in sulfur dioxide.

cogeneration Production of two useful forms of energy such as high-temperature heat and electricity from the same process. For example, while boiling water to generate electricity, the leftover steam can be sold for industrial processes or space heating.

Compliance Account The place in the NOx or SO2 Allowance Tracking System where Allowances are recorded and held by a NOx affected source or an SO2 source.

Compliance Year In the RECLAIM program, the 12 month period beginning on January 1 and ending on December 31 for cycle 1 facilities, and beginning on July 1 and ending on June 30 for cycle 2 facilities.

combustion Chemical oxidation accompanied by the generation of light and heat.

commercial sector An area consisting of non-housing units such as non-manufacturing business establishments (e.g., wholesale and retail businesses), health and educational institutions, and government offices.

compound Combination of two or more different chemical elements held together by chemical bonds. See element, inorganic compound.

concentration Amount of a chemical in a particular volume or weight of air, water, soil, or other medium. See parts per billion, parts per million.

Conference of the Parties (COP) The supreme body of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). It comprises more than 170 nations that have ratified the Convention. Its first session was held in Berlin, Germany, in 1995 and it is expected to continue meeting on a yearly basis. The COP's role is to promote and review the implementation of the Convention. It will periodically review existing commitments in light of the Convention's objective, new scientific findings, and the effectiveness of national climate change programs. See United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, Berlin Mandate.

criteria pollutant A pollutant determined to be hazardous to human health and regulated under EPA's National Ambient Air Quality Standards. The 1970 amendments to the Clean Air Act require EPA to describe the health and welfare impacts of a pollutant as the "criteria" for inclusion in the regulatory regime. Emissions of the criteria pollutants CO, NOx, NMVOCs, and SO2 are thought to be precursors to greenhouse gas formation.

D

Discrete Emission Reduction Credits DERs, DERCs, or open market credits, are reductions in emissions that occur over a specified time period and do not continue on into the future. Generally, unlike ERCs, DERs are not evaluated and verified by the relevant local or state government air agency. Mass-based ERCs are one type of DER.

Domestic crops Produce from domesticated plants, especially cereals such as wheat, rye and corn. Other examples are soybean, cotton, canola and sugar cane.

E

Economy System of production, distribution, and consumption of economic goods.

Element Chemicals such as hydrogen (H), iron (Fe), sodium (Na), carbon (C), nitrogen (N), or oxygen (O), whose distinctly different atoms serve as the basic building blocks of all matter. There are 92 naturally occurring elements. Another 15 have been made in laboratories. Two or more elements combine to form compounds that make up most of the world's matter. See compound.

Emission inventory A list of air pollutants emitted into a community's, state's, nation's, or the Earth's atmosphere in amounts per some unit time (e.g. day or year) by type of source. An emission inventory has both political and scientific applications.

Emission offset The use of an ERC to offset, or mitigate, an emission increase governed by New Source Review Rules.

Emission Reduction Credit ERCs are reductions in emissions that have been recognized by the relevant local or state government air agency as being real, permanent, surplus, and enforceable. ERCs are usually measured as a weight over time (e.g., pounds per day or tons per year). Such rate-based ERCs can be used to satisfy emission offset requirements of new major sources and new major modifications of existing major sources. Mass-based ERCs, more akin to DERs, are issued with the weight and without reference to time.

Emissions The release of a substance (usually a gas when referring to the subject of climate change) into the atmosphere.

Emissions Reduction Market System The ERMS is a cap and trade regulatory program for stationary sources emitting volatile organic material in the ozone nonattainment area located in Northeastern Illinois.

Emissions trading Emissions trading is a regulatory program that allows firms the flexibility to select cost-effective solutions to achieve established environmental goals. With emissions trading, firms can meet established emissions goals by: (a) reducing emissions from a discrete emissions unit; (b) reducing emissions from another place within the facility; or (c) securing emission reductions from another facility. Emissions trading encourages compliance and financial managers to pursue cost-effective emission reduction strategies and incentivizes emitting entrepreneurs to develop the means by which emissions can inexpensively be reduced.

Energy conservation Reduction or elimination of unnecessary energy use and waste.

Energy quality Ability of a form of energy to do useful work. High-temperature heat and the chemical energy in fossil fuels and nuclear fuels are concentrated high quality energy. Low-quality energy such as low-temperature heat is dispersed or diluted and cannot do much useful work.

Energy The capacity for doing work as measured by the capability of doing work (potential energy) or the conversion of this capability to motion (kinetic energy). Energy has several forms, some of which are easily convertible and can be changed to another form useful for work. Most of the world's convertible energy comes from fossil fuels that are burned to produce heat that is then used as a transfer medium to mechanical or other means in order to accomplish tasks. In the United States, electrical energy is often measured in kilowatt-hours (kWh), while heat energy is often measured in British thermal units (Btu).

Enhanced greenhouse effect The concept that the natural greenhouse effect has been enhanced by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases. Increased concentrations of carbon dioxide, methane, and nitrous oxide, CFCs, HFCs, PFCs, SF6, NF3, and other photochemically important gases caused by human activities such as fossil fuel consumption, trap more infra-red radiation, thereby exerting a warming influence on the climate. See greenhouse gas, anthropogenic, greenhouse effect, climate, global warming.

Environment All external conditions that affect an organism or other specified system during its lifetime.

F

Fertilization A term used to denote efforts to enhance plant growth by increased application of nitrogen-based fertilizer or increased deposition of nitrates in precipitation.

Fertilizer Substance that adds inorganic or organic plant nutrients to soil and improves its ability to grow crops, trees, or other vegetation. See fertilization.

Flaring The burning of waste gases through a flare stack or other device before releasing them to the air.

Flue Gas The air coming out of a chimney after combustion in the burner it is venting. It can include nitrogen oxides, carbon oxides, water vapor, sulfur oxides, particles and many chemical pollutants.

Flue Gas Desulfurization The removal of sulfur oxides from exhaust gases of a boiler or industrial process; usually a wet scrubbing operation which concentrates hazardous materials in a slurry, requiring proper disposal.

Flue Gas Purification [FGP] AIRborne Technologies' acronym for removal of SOx [Flue Gas Desulfurization], NOx and airborne particulates, including heavy metals, from flue gas using sodium-based scrubbing processes. FGP has co-control benefits to SOx removal. See also Co-control benefit, Flue Gas Desulfurization, sodium-based and scrubbing.

Fossil fuel A general term for buried combustible geologic deposits of organic materials, formed from decayed plants and animals that have been converted to crude oil, coal, natural gas, or heavy oils by exposure to heat and pressure in the earth's crust over hundreds of millions of years. See coal, natural gas.

Fossil fuel combustion Burning of coal, oil (including gasoline), or natural gas. This burning, usually to generate energy, releases carbon dioxide, as well as combustion by products that can include unburned hydrocarbons, methane, and carbon monoxide. Carbon monoxide, methane, and many of the unburned hydrocarbons slowly oxidize into carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. Common sources of fossil fuel combustion include cars and electric utilities.

Fuel switching A precombustion process whereby a low-sulfur coal is used in place of a higher sulfur coal in a power plant to reduce sulfur dioxide emissions.

G

Glauber’s salt Sodium sulfate decahydrate, Na2SO4.10H2O, used as a laxative. It is named after J.R. Glauber (1604-68).

Global warming The progressive gradual rise of the earth's surface temperature thought to be caused by the greenhouse effect and responsible for changes in global climate patterns. An increase in the near surface temperature of the Earth. Global warming has occurred in the distant past as the result of natural influences, but the term is most often used to refer to the warming predicted to occur as a result of increased emissions of greenhouse gases. See climate change, greenhouse effect, enhanced greenhouse effect.

Global Warming Potential (GWP) The index used to translate the level of emissions of various gases into a common measure in order to compare the relative radiative forcing of different gases without directly calculating the changes in atmospheric concentrations. GWPs are calculated as the ratio of the radiative forcing that would result from the emissions of one kilogram of a greenhouse gas to that from emission of one kilogram of carbon dioxide over a period of time (usually 100 years). The chart below shows the original GWPs (assigned in 1990) and the most recent GWPs (assigned in 1996) for the most important greenhouse gases.

* Not Applicable. GWP was not yet estimated for this gas.
**This figure is an average GWP for the two PFCs, CF4 and C2F6. See carbon equivalent, carbon dioxide equivalent.

In the greenhouse gas program, the GWP is an index found in the Kyoto Protocol that allows for the comparison of greenhouse gases with each other in the context of their relative potential to contribute to global warming.

Granular fertilizers Round, free-flowing pellets sized for application by commercial air-seeders. AIRborne Technologies’ patent protected granular fertilizers are consistent manufacture [2.4 to 4 mm in size, 15% moisture, and density 500 kg/m3], very durable with an indefinite shelf life for shipping/storage.

They are also clean, odor free, dust free, safely handled indoors & outdoors, readily soluble, fast acting & long lasting. They can be easily packaged and enriched with additives & microbes. They are made of fertilizers free of toxic heavy metals [lead, mercury, selenium].

Greenhouse gas effect In the greenhouse gas program, a concept that refers to the effect that releasing greenhouse gas emissions has on the relative warming of the earth’s atmosphere. The release of too much greenhouse gas over a period of time results in a gradual warming of the atmosphere.

Greenhouse gas reduction A greenhouse gas reduction is a reduction in emissions that is recognized to contribute to climate change — e.g. carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons, perfluorocarbons, and sulfur hexofluoride. Greenhouse gas reductions are often measured in tons of carbon dioxide-equivalent. For example, 1 ton of methane has the same global warming potential as 20.9 tons of carbon dioxide.

Greenhouse effect The effect produced as greenhouse gases allow incoming solar radiation to pass through the Earth's atmosphere, but prevent part of the outgoing infrared radiation from the Earth's surface and lower atmosphere from escaping into outer space. This process occurs naturally and has kept the Earth's temperature about 59 degrees F warmer than it would otherwise be. Current life on Earth could not be sustained without the natural greenhouse effect.

Greenhouse gas (GHG) Any gas that absorbs infra-red radiation in the atmosphere. Greenhouse gases include water vapor, carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), halogenated fluorocarbons (HCFCs), ozone (O3), perfluorinated carbons (PFCs), and hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs). See carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, hydrofluorocarbons.

H

Hazardous waste A subset of solid wastes that pose substantial or potential threats to public health or the environment and meet any of the following criteria: it is specifically listed as a hazardous waste by EPA; exhibits one or more of the characteristics of hazardous wastes (ignitability, corrosiveness, reactivity, and/or toxicity); or is generated by the treatment of hazardous waste; or is contained in a hazardous waste.
Heat Form of kinetic energy that flows from one body to another when there is a temperature difference between the two bodies. Heat always flows spontaneously from a hot sample of matter to a colder sample of matter. This is one way to state the second law of thermodynamics. See temperature.

Heat content The amount of heat per unit mass released upon complete combustion.

Heavy metals Metallic elements with high atomic weights, some of which are treated as hazardous waste, e.g., mercury, chromium, cadmium, arsenic, and lead. They can damage living things at low concentrations and tend to accumulate in the food chain.

Higher heating value Quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel assuming that the produced water vapor is completely condensed and the heat is recovered; also known as gross calorific value. See lower heating value.

High-sulfur coal See sulfur content.

Hydrocarbons Substances containing only hydrogen and carbon. Fossil fuels are made up of hydrocarbons. Some hydrocarbon compounds are major air pollutants. See fossil fuel.

Hydrofluorocarbons (HFCs) Compounds containing only hydrogen, fluorine, and carbon atoms. They were introduced as alternatives to ozone depleting substances in serving many industrial, commercial, and personal needs. HFCs are emitted as by-products of industrial processes and are also used in manufacturing. They do not significantly deplete the stratospheric ozone layer, but they are powerful greenhouse gases with global warming

I

Inorganic compound Combination of two or more elements other than those used to form organic compounds.

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) The IPCC was established jointly by the United Nations Environment Programme and the World Meteorological Organization in 1988. The purpose of the IPCC is to assess information in the scientific and technical literature related to all significant components of the issue of climate change. The IPCC draws upon hundreds of the world's expert scientists as authors and thousands as expert reviewers. Leading experts on climate change and environmental, social, and economic sciences from some 60 nations have helped the IPCC to prepare periodic assessments of the scientific underpinnings for understanding global climate change and its consequences. With its capacity for reporting on climate change, its consequences, and the viability of adaptation and mitigation measures, the IPCC is also looked to as the official advisory body to the world's governments on the state of the science of the climate change issue. For example, the IPCC organized the development of internationally accepted methods for conducting national greenhouse gas emission inventories.

Interpollutant trading The use of reductions of one type of pollutant to offset the increases of another. In new source review programs, ERCs of pollutants considered to be precursors to a second pollutant can be used to offset the increases of the second pollutant. For example, SOx is often considered to be a precursor to PM. As such, in some areas SOx reductions can be used to offset PM emission increases (though perhaps at a ratio of greater than 1:1).

J

Joint implementation Agreements made between two or more nations under the auspices of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change to help reduce greenhouse gas emissions.

K

Kyoto Protocol In the greenhouse gas program, the Kyoto Protocol is an agreement between 159 nations that attended the 3rd COP to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change which was held in Kyoto, Japan in December of 1997. The Kyoto Protocol specifies the deadlines and specific levels of greenhouse gas reductions that signatory countries are to achieve. Overall, developed countries are to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 5.2% between 2008 and 2012 as measured against 1990 emission levels.

L

Landfill A method for final disposal of solid waste on land. The refuse is spread and compacted and a cover of soil applied so that effects on the environment (including public health and safety) are minimized. Under current regulations, landfills are required to have liners and leachate treatment systems to prevent contamination of ground water and surface waters. An industrial landfill disposes of non-hazardous industrial wastes. A municipal landfill disposes of domestic waste including garbage, paper, etc. This waste may include toxins that are used in the home, such as insect sprays and powders, engine oil, paints, solvents, and weed killers.

Lifetime (atmospheric) The lifetime of a greenhouse gas refers to the approximate amount of time it would take for the anthropogenic increment to an atmospheric pollutant concentration to return to its natural level (assuming emissions cease) as a result of either being converted to another chemical compound or being taken out of the atmosphere via a sink. This time depends on the pollutant's sources and sinks as well as its reactivity. The lifetime of a pollutant is often considered in conjunction with the mixing of pollutants in the atmosphere; a long lifetime will allow the pollutant to mix throughout the atmosphere. Average lifetimes can vary from about a week (sulfate aerosols) to more than a century (CFCs, carbon dioxide).

Lignite A brownish-black coal of low rank with high inherent moisture and volatile matter content, used almost exclusively for electric power generation. Also referred to as brown coal. See coal.

Low-sulfur coal See sulfur content.

Lower heating value Quantity of heat liberated by the complete combustion of a unit volume or weight of a fuel assuming that the produced water remains as a vapor and the heat of the vapor is not recovered; also known as net calorific value. See higher heating value.

M

Methane (CH4) A hydrocarbon that is a greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently estimated at 21. Methane is produced through anaerobic (without oxygen) decomposition of waste in landfills, animal digestion, decomposition of animal wastes, production and distribution of natural gas and petroleum, coal production, and incomplete fossil fuel combustion. The atmospheric concentration of methane as been shown to be increasing at a rate of about 0.6 percent per year and the concentration of about 1.7 per million by volume (ppmv) is more than twice its pre-industrial value. However, the rate of increase of methane in the atmosphere may be stabilizing.

Metric ton Common international measurement for the quantity of greenhouse gas emissions. A metric ton is equal to 2205 lbs or 1.1 short tons.

Mineral Any naturally occurring inorganic substance found in the earth's crust as a crystalline solid.

Molecule Chemical combination of two or more atoms of the same chemical element (such as O2) or different chemical elements (such as H2O).

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer The Montreal Protocol and its amendments control the phaseout of ozone depleting substances production and use. Under the Protocol, several international organizations report on the science of ozone depletion, implement projects to help move away from ozone depleting substances, and provide a forum for policy discussions. In the United States, the Protocol is implemented under the Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990.

N

Natural gas Underground deposits of gases consisting of 50 to 90 percent methane (CH4) and small amounts of heavier gaseous hydrocarbon compounds such as propane (C3H4) and butane (C4H10).

Nitrogen cycle Cyclic movement of nitrogen in different chemical forms from the environment, to organisms, and then back to the environment.

Nitrogen fixation Conversion of atmospheric nitrogen gas into forms useful to plants and other organisms by lightning, bacteria, and blue-green algae; it is part of the nitrogen cycle.

Nitrogen oxides (NOx) Gases consisting of one molecule of nitrogen and varying numbers of oxygen molecules. Nitrogen oxides are produced, for example, by the combustion of fossil fuels in vehicles and electric power plants. In the atmosphere, nitrogen oxides can contribute to formation of photochemical ozone (smog), impair visibility, and have health consequences; they are considered pollutants.

Nitrous oxide (N2O) A powerful greenhouse gas with a global warming potential most recently evaluated at 310. Major sources of nitrous oxide include soil cultivation practices, especially the use of commercial and organic fertilizers, fossil fuel combustion, nitric acid production, and biomass burning.

NOx allowance An emissions right issued by the governing state participating in the Ozone Transport Commission NOx Budget program that gives authorization to emit one ton of NOx during a specified year pursuant to the rules of the State's NOx Budget program. These Allowances may sometimes be banked into later years.

NOx Allowance Tracking System In the OTC NOx Budget program, the NATS is the computerized system used to track the number of OTC NOx allowances held and used by any person.

NOx emissions The sum of nitric oxides and nitrogen dioxides emitted, calculated as nitrogen dioxide.

NOx Emissions Tracking System In the OTC Budget program, the NETS is the computerized system used to track NOx emissions from NOx affected sources.

NOx affected source In the OTC NOx Budget program, a fossil fuel fired, indirect heat exchange combustion unit[s] with a maximum rated heat input capacity of 250 MMBtu/hour or more, and all fossil fuel fired electric generating facilities rated at 15 megawatts or greater, or any other source that voluntarily opts to become a NOx affected source.

NOx allocation In the OTC NOx Budget program, assignment of NOx Allowances to a NOx affected source and recorded by the NOx budget administrator to a NOx Allowance Tracking System account. In the RECLAIM program, NOx sources have NOx RTC allocations issued by the SCAQMD.

NOx allowance transfer In the OTC NOx Budget program, the conveyance to another NATS account of one or more NOx Allowances from one person to another by whatever means, including, but not limited to, purchase, trade, auction or gift.

NOx allowance transfer deadline In the OTC NOx Budget program, the deadline by which NOx Allowances may be submitted for recording in a NOx affected source's compliance account for purposes of meeting NOx Allowance requirements.

NOx budget In the OTC NOx Budget program, the total tons of NOx emissions that may be released from NOx affected sources.

NOx budget administrator In the OTC NOx Budget program, the person or agency designated as the NOx budget administrator of the NATS and the NETS.

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Offset ratio The amount of pollutant that must be secured relative to the on-site emission increase. Often, new sources must offset their emissions at a greater than 1:1 ratio, especially if the offsetting emission reductions are derived from an off-site source.

Operating cost In accounting, the costs of the selling and administrative activities of a business. Operating costs are reported on the income statement and are usually categorized as selling and general and administrative expenses.

Operating loss See operating profit.

Operating profit [or loss] The profit [or loss] made by a company as a result of its principal trading activity. This is arrived at by deducting its operating expenses from its trading profit, or adding its operating expenses to its trading loss. In either case this is before taking into account any extraordinary items.

OTC NOx budget program The cap and trade program administered by the OTC MOU signing states.

Ozone Transport Commission Memorandum of Understanding (OTC MOU) The memorandum of understanding (MOU) signed by representatives of ten states and the District of Columbia as members of the Ozone Transport Commission (OTC) on September 27, 1994.

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Particulate matter In the New Source Review program, PM represent emissions of any material, except uncombined water, which exists in a finely divided form as a liquid or solid at standard conditions. PM10 is PM emissions with an aerodynamic diameter of 10 microns or less.

Pollution control processes Processes designed to reduce water, noise and air pollution. Waste reduction, energy conservation and safety issues are interrelated and often complimentary to each other. For example, the reduction in the amount of energy a facility consumes usually results in reduced emissions associated with the generation of power.

Potash Any of a number of potassium compounds, such as the carbonate or the hydroxide.

Potassium hydroxide (caustic potash; lye) A white deliquescent solid, KOH, often sold as pellets, flakes, or sticks, soluble in water and in ethanol and very slightly soluble in ether; rhombic; relative density 2.044; melting point 360.4 C; boiling point 1320 C. It is prepared industrially by the electrolysis of concentrated potassium chloride solution but it can also be made by heating potassium carbonate or sulfate with slaked lime, Ca(OH)2. It closely resembles sodium hydroxide but is more soluble and is therefore preferred as an absorber for carbon dioxide and sulfur dioxide. It is also used in the manufacture of soft soap, other potassium salts, and in Ni_Fe and alkaline storage cells. Potassium hydroxide is extremely corrosive to body tissues and especially damaging to the eyes.

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RECLAIM The Regional Clean Air Incentives Market established by the SCAQMD, a cap and trade rule covering sources with 4 tons per year or more of NOx or SOx emissions and resulting in a reduction of NOx and SOx emissions of 75% and 61%, respectively, from affected sources.

RECLAIM pollutants In the RECLAIM program, oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and oxides of sulfur (SOx), excluding any NOx emissions from on-site, off-road mobile sources and any SOx emissions from equipment burning natural gas.

RECLAIM trading credit In the RECLAIM program, the RTC is a limited authorization to emit a RECLAIM pollutant in accordance with the restrictions and requirements of the RECLAIM rules. Each RTC has a denomination of one pound of RECLAIM pollutant and a term of one year, and can be held as part of a facility’s Allocation or alternatively may be evidenced by an RTC Certificate.

Reconciliation period The period of time after the quarter, half-year, or compliance year ends during which affected sources may true-up their accounts. Credit or allowances holders that are long (e.g, they have more credits or allowances in their account than are needed to cover their emissions over the just completed period) have the opportunity to sell the surplus credits or allowances during the reconciliation period. Those that are short (e.g., they have an insufficient quantity of credits or allowances in their compliance accounts than are needed to cover their emissions over the just completed period) may acquire credits or allowances to account for any shortfalls during the reconciliation period. Each program has its own reconciliation period.

Regenerate The process of restoring a chemical to its initial state of reaction. E.g. AIRborne Technologies' restoration of sodium carbonates from sodium sulfate after the carbonates have reacted with flue gas.

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Scrubbing A treatment process used to remove gases, toxic and volatile substances from water or air streams. In Flue Gas Desulfurization, large volumes of flue gasare forced through an absorber vessel,